Does Elderberry Really Minimize Flu Symptoms?

A new study by researchers at the University of Sydney’s Faculty of Engineering and IT have found that compounds contained in elderberries can directly inhibit the flu virus’s entry and also replication in human cells. These compounds can additionally help strengthen the immune response to this virus. While modern scientists have struggled to explain the medicinal benefits of herbal products and folk medicine, these methods have been used for millennia to help combat a variety of ailments.

Although the flu fighting properties of the elderberry fruit have been previously observed, the team sought to perform a more comprehensive examination of the mechanisms through which phytochemicals found in elderberries can help combat the flu virus.

The study involved the use of commercially farmed elderberries which were made into a juice serum. This serum was applied to cells at all stages after they had been infected with the flu virus…before, during and after. The phytochemicals from the juice were shown to be effective at stopping the flu virus infecting the cells.

And surprisingly to the research team, they were even more effective at inhibiting viral propagation at the later stages of the flu cycle when the cells had been infected with the virus. The study showed that this common fruit has a direct and potent antiviral effect against the flu. It inhibits the initial sages of the infection by blocking key viral proteins that are responsible for viral attachment and entry into host cells.

In addition, the team identified that the solution from the elderberry also stimulated the cells to release certain cytokines. These are chemical messengers which the immune system uses for communication between different cells types in an effort to coordinate a better response against invading pathogens.

They also found that the antiviral activity of the elderberry can be attributed to its anthocyanidin compounds. These are phytonutrients which are responsible for the vivid purple coloring of the fruit.

The elderberry which is also known as sambucus nigra, is an antioxidant rich fruit most common to North America and Europe. It is commonly consumed as wine or jam. For the medicinal benefits, elderberry extract is available in table or syrup form.

The flu virus is one of the leading cause of worldwide mortality. It affects almost 10% of the world’s population and contributes to one million deaths on an annual basis.

To view the original scientific study click here: Anti-influenza activity of elderberry.

Can Intermittent Fasting Help you Live Longer?

Typically for many people a New Year is the perfect time to adopt new habits both in the gym and at the grocery store. People can be eager to try out new diets, but does scientific evidence actually support claims made for these diets?

Mark Mattson, Ph. D., a neuroscientist at John Hopkins Medicine, has studied intermittent fasting for 25 years and adopted it himself about 20 years ago. He concludes that intermittent fasting does live up to the claims that it can be a part of a healthy lifestyle.

Generally, intermittent fasting diets fall into two categories: 5:2 intermittent fasting in which people will limit themselves to one moderate sized meal two days each week, and daily time restricted eating which narrows eating times to 6 to 8 hours per day.

A variety of animal and human studies have shown that alternating between eating and fasting supports cellular health. The thought is that most likely this happens by triggering an age old adaptation to periods of food scarcity referred to as metabolic switching. This switch occurs when cells use up stores of rapidly accessible sugar based fuel and begin converting fat into energy which occurs in a slower metabolic process.

Studies have shown that this metabolic switch improves the regulation of blood sugar, suppresses inflammation, and increases the resistance to stress. Most Americans consume three meals in addition to snacks every day so they do not experience the switch and the suggested benefits.

Mattson also notes that four different studies in both people and animals found intermittent fasting also decreases blood pressure, resting heart rates, and blood lipid levels. There is also mounting evidence that this type of fasting can modify risk factors which that are associated with diabetes and obesity.

Two studies conducted at the University Hospital of South Manchester NHS Foundation Trust which involved 100 overweight women showed that the women on the 5:2 intermittent fasting diet lost the same amount of weight as women who restricted their calories. Additionally they did better with insulin sensitivity and reduced belly fat when compared to those in the reduced calorie group.

Recently, Mattson says preliminary studies have suggested that intermittent fasting could also benefit brain health. A multi center clinical trial at the University of Toronto found that 220 healthy and non obese adults who maintained a calorie restricted diet for a period of two years showed evidence of improved memory in a variety of cognitive tests. If further studies show the proof that fasting can improve learning and memory, interventions may be developed that can stave off dementia and neurodegeneration.

Mattson believes we are at a point where medical school curricula alongside advice and healthy diets and exercise may be developed. Although he recognizes that researchers do not completely understand the specific mechanisms of metabolic switching and that there are some people who or unwilling or unable to adhere to a fasting program.

With guidance and patience, most people are able to incorporate fasting regimes into their lives. It does take the body some time to adjust to intermittent fasting and to get past some of the initial hunger pangs and irritability that can accompany it. These symptoms typically pass after two weeks to a month as the brain and body become accustomed to this new habit.

To manage that hurdle, Mattson suggests that health care professionals advise patients to gradually increase the frequency and duration of the fasting periods over the course of several months, instead of going cold turkey.

To view the original scientific study click below

Effects of Intermittent Fasting on Health, Aging, and Disease.

Caffeine may Offset some of Negative Effects of High Fat & Sugar in Diet

Researchers from the University of Illinois have conducted a new study on rats that suggests caffeine may offset some of the health risks associated with diets high in sugar and fat. What they found was that rats who consumed caffeine which was extracted from mate tea gained 16% less weight and accumulated 22% less body fat compared to rats who consumed decaffeinated mate tea.

Mate tea is an herbal beverage high in flavonoids, phytochemicals, and amino acids. It is consumed as a stimulant by people living in southeastern Latin American countries. The amount of caffeine in a serving of mate tea ranges from 65 to 130 milligrams. The caffeine in coffee ranges from 30 to 300 milligrams per one cup.

The rats in the study ate a diet that contained 40% fat, 15% protein and 45% carbohydrates for four weeks. They also consumed one of the forms of caffeine equivalent to someone who drinks four cups of coffee daily.

At the end of the study period, the percentage of lean body mass in the different groups of the rats differed significantly. The rats that consumed caffeine from the mate tea, coffee, or synthetic sources accumulated less body fat compared to the rats in the other groups.

The accumulation of lipids in the adipocytes in the rats was significantly associated with increased body fat and greater body weight gain. To understand the mechanism of this action, the team performed cell culture studies where they exposed adipose cells from mice to synthetic caffeine or the mate or coffee extracts.

They discovered that regardless of the source, caffeine decreased the accumulation of lipids in adipose cells by 20% to 41%. The team also tracked the expression of a variety of genes that are associated with obesity and lipid metabolism. This included the fatty acid synthase gene (Fasn) which is an enzyme compound involved in the synthesis of fatty acids from glucose, and also the lipoprotein lipase gene (Lpl) which codes for an enzyme which breaks down triglycerides.

All caffeine treatments regardless of the origin significantly down regulated the expression of both Fasn and Lpl. Within the cell cultures, Fasn expression diminished by 31% to 39% and the Lpl expression diminished by 51% to 69% among cells that had been treated with synthetic caffeine or the caffeine derived from coffee or mate tea.

In the rats that were given the mate tea caffeine, expression of Fasn decreased by 39% in their fat tissue and decreased by 37% in their livers. Additionally, the decreased expression of the Fasn gene and two other genes in the liver evoked a lower production of low density lipoprotein cholesterol and triglycerides in the liver.

The study adds to a growing body of research which suggests mate tea might help fight obesity. It also provides other beneficial health effects associated with the vitamins, flavonoids, and phenolic compounds it contains.

Based on the studies findings, caffeine can be considered an anti obesity agent. The consumption of caffeine from mate and other sources alleviates the negative impact of a high sucrose and high fat diet on body composition due to the modulation of certain lipogenic enzymes in the liver and adipose tissue. The diminished expression of Lpl and Fasn brought about the lower synthesis and accumulation of triglycerides in the andipose tissue.

The findings of the study could be scaled to people to understand the roles of caffeine and mate tea as possible strategies in preventing overweight and obesity in addition to subsequent metabolic disorders which are associated with these conditions.

To view the original scientific study click below

Caffeine, but not other phytochemicals, in mate tea (Ilex paraguariensis St. Hilaire) attenuates high-fat-high-sucrose-diet-driven lipogenesis and body fat accumulation.

Cell Phone Usage can Injure Head & Neck

A new study has found that injuries to people distracted by their cell phones has increased quite steeply over the 20 year study period. People are falling, tripping, and hurting their necks and heads more often than ever. Some have even dubbed texting the “new drunk driving”!

While most cases are mild, some of the injuries involve lacerations to the face and traumatic brain injuries which can lead to long term and serious consequences. The current study is the first to investigate the role cell phones play in injuries to these particular parts of the body. Previous studies have observed that all types of distracted walking injuries have been on the rise.

Dr. Boris Paskhover is the author of the study and a reconstructive surgeon. He began looking into the statistics after seeing patients with facial wounds and broken jaws reported to be due to falling while staring at their phones or not paying attention to their surroundings. It is no secret that when you walk into a city, many people are just looking at their phones while carrying on with their activity.

According to the U. S. Department of Transportation, dialing or text messaging on a cell phone or a wireless device while driving was responsible for 401 fatal crashes in 2017. However, that isn’t the only way cell phone use can be distracting and potentially dangerous.

Texting while walking can also lead to accidents. 96% of people in the U. S. own a cell phone. The researchers set out to see what percentage of neck and head injuries are due to cell phone use. The study looked at 20 years of data from a database that collects information about emergency room visits in approximately 100 U. S. hospitals. They were specifically looking at the types, incidence, and mechanisms of neck and head injuries associated with cell phone usage.

From January 1988 to December 2017, 2,501 patients sought help for these type of injuries. When translated onto a national scale, the number of cases with these type injuries would amount to more than 76,000 people.

One third of the injuries occurred in the head and neck area. Another third were injuries to the face including the eyes, eyelid area and nose. Over 12% of the injuries were related to the neck. The most common injury diagnosis included 26.3% lacerations, 24.5% contusion or abrasion and 18.4% were injuries to internal organs.

Neck and head injuries which were related to cell phone usage was relatively rare until 2007 when the rate began to sharply increase. This was the first year the iPhone was released and was followed by a much steeper increase that peaked in 2016.

Cell phone users from 13 to 29 comprised almost 40% of the patients. Most of their injuries in this age group were due to distraction. Children younger than 13 were more likely to be injured directly by the phone such as being accidentally hit by a device that was in a parent’s hand. And some were injured when their phone slipped, hit them on the face and broke their nose.

The team does acknowledge there were a few limitations to the study. The database used did not contain information about other coexisting conditions, outcomes or treatments. And the database did not include information in regards to visits to other healthcare setting such as immediate care. However, the studies findings indicate there is a need for public education about the potential risks of being distracted by cell phone usage beyond texting while driving.

To view the original scientific study click below

Head and Neck Injuries Associated With Cell Phone Use

Brushing to Protect the Heart

A new study has shown that brushing teeth frequently, three or more times per day, is linked to lower risks of heart failure and atrial fibrillation (A fib, a type of arrhythmia). Bacteria found in our mouths may be the key to many facets of our health. Some studies have found oral bacteria in blood clots of people who have had strokes, and experts have also linked gum disease to a significantly higher risk of hypertension. Mounting evidence is now strengthening the link between cardiovascular health and oral hygiene.

The study involved 161,286 people living in Korea between the ages of 40 and 79 and who showed no history of heart problems. All participants went through a routine medical examination between 2003 and 2004. Information was gathered on weight, height, illnesses, lifestyle, laboratory tests, oral health, and oral hygiene habits. Laboratory tests included urine tests, blood tests and blood pressure readings.

During a median follow up of 10.5 years, the research team followed up with the participants to see if they had developed any heart problems. 4,911 (3%) of the participants had developed atrial fibrillation and 7,971 (4.9%) had developed heart failure.

Tooth brushing of three of more times per day was associated with a 12% lower risk of heart failure and a 10% lower risk of atrial fibrillation during the 10.5 year follow-up. The findings were independent of a variety of factors including sex, age, socioeconomic status, alcohol consumption, regular exercise, comorbidities such as hypertension, and body mass index.

The study did not investigate mechanisms, however a possibility is that frequent tooth brushing reduces the bacteria in the subgingival biofilm which is bacteria living in the pocket between the gums and the teeth. Brushing thereby prevents translocation of bacteria to the bloodstream.

Although the study was limited to one country, it was a large study over a long period which strengthens their findings that tooth brushing may be linked to a lower risk of heart failure and A-fib.

To view the original scientific study click below

Improved oral hygiene care is associated with decreased risk of occurrence for atrial fibrillation and heart failure: A nationwide population-based cohort study.

BPA Levels Higher than Previous Thought

By using a new method for assessing BPA levels in the human body, scientists are now suggesting that our exposure to this industrial chemical is much higher than previous estimates. Following a recent study, they believe that regulators such as the FDA could be relying on measures that have underestimated those levels by as much as 44 times.

BPA is a chemical that is present in a variety of consumer products including plastic containers for food and beverages and is also found in epoxy products. In the human body it is an endocrine disruptor which means it interferes with hormone functions in the body.

It is only in the last few years that scientists have begun to understand how BPA and other endocrine disruptors can affect human health. Once BPA enters the body, it breaks down quickly into metabolites. To accurately asses BPA exposure, scientists much take metabolites into consideration.

In the study, the team explains that agencies such as the FDA are still relying on analytical techniques that indirectly assess BPA metabolite levels. When the team compared those techniques to newer ones that measure BPA metabolites directly, the results were very different.

Studies on animals have shown that BPA can disrupt the normal healthy functioning of hormones in the body. Exposure to BPA during gestation has been linked to changes in a variety of developing tissues with corresponding postnatal effects on metabolism, growth, fertility, behavior and cancer risk.

The studies that the FDA has relied on use an indirect analytical technique for measuring BPA in humans. This method uses an enzyme solution from a type of edible snail. The snail enzyme solution converts BPA metabolites in urine back into the parent compound. Scientists then use liquid chromatography mass spectrometry to measure total BPA. Total BPA comprises free BPA and BPA reconstituted from its metabolites.

The research team note that while its widespread use, the efficiency with which the snail enzyme solution converts metabolites back to BPA has never been assessed. The team compared the snail enzyme method with a method that accounts for BPA’s metabolites more directly without the conversion back into the parent compound.

They tested the two methods first in synthetic urine and then in 39 human urine samples which included 29 from women who were pregnant. The results showed that the direct measurement detected significantly higher levels of BPA, as much as 44 times higher than the last geometric mean for adults in the United States.

They also saw that the disparity between the indirect and direct methods increased with higher levels of BPA. This means that the more BPA inside the body, the more likely the indirect method will show a lower reading. This is the first data to provide evidence that the indirect method is a flawed analytical tool for measuring BPA levels.

The research team is also concerned about other chemicals including ones that manufacturers use in place of BPA. They are worried because regulators are relying on the indirect method to asses the human exposure to those chemicals as well.

The hope is this new study will bring attention to the current methodology used to measure BPA and that other experts and labs will take a closer look at and assess independently what is happening. It certainly raises serious concerns about whether regulatory agencies are careful enough about the safety of BPAs

In addition to continuing to investigate BPA, the researchers plan to apply the direct method to a variety of chemicals found in every day products such as toys, soap, cosmetics, food packaging and other personal care items. These chemicals include parabens, triclosan, phthalates, and benzophenone.

To view the original scientific study click below

BPA: have flawed analytical techniques compromised risk assessments?

Restoring Standing and Walking with Micro Implants

In new research, a team has shown a map that will identify which parts of the spinal cord trigger knees hips, ankles, and toes and the areas that put movements together. Along with an electrical spinal implant, the dream of helping people walk again could someday be a reality, even in the next decade.

Vivian Mushahwar, the lead researcher, is the director of the SMART Network which is a collaboration of more than 100 University of Alberta learners and scientists who work at intentionally breaking disciplinary silos to think of unique ways to tackle neural diseases and injuries. Her goal has been to help people walk again and has been working towards that goal for the past 20 years.

Mushahwar’s idea is to fix paralysis by rewiring the spinal cord. However, the spinal cord also involves biology so it isn’t just a matter of reconnecting a cable. Three huge feats are needed. The brain has to translate signals, the spinal cord has to be figured out and controlled, and the two sides have to be talking again.

Mushahwar believes the spinal cord has a built in intelligence. There is a complex chain of sensory and motor networks which regulate everything in our bodies. The brain stem’s contribution is basically to signal “go” and “faster”. The spinal cord isn’t just moving muscles, it also gives people a natural gait.

A variety of researchers have tried different ways to restore movement. Through sending electrical impulses into the muscles of the leg, it is possible to enable people to walk or stand again. However, the effect is strictly mechanical and not very effective.

Mushahwar’s research has been focusing on restoring lower body function following severe injuries using a tiny spinal implant. Hair like electrical wires are plunged deep into the spinal grey matter which sends electrical signals to trigger the networks that already know how the hard work is done. They believe that intraspinal stimulation itself will get people to start walking longer and longer and perhaps even faster.

The spinal map the team has showcased, shows that the spinal maps have been remarkably consistent across the animal spectrum, however further work is needed before human trials can be started. Human trials will be a massive undertaking, so further work with animals needs to be done first.

Being able to stand and walk has a variety of health benefits. Both improve bone health, improve bladder and bowel function and reduce pressure ulcers. Standing and walking could also help treat cardiovascular disease which is the main cause of death for people with spinal cord injuries. For people with less serious spinal injuries, an implant could be therapeutic and could remove the need for months of grueling physical therapy regimes that typically have limited success.

The next steps for Mushahwar are to fine tune the hardware, miniaturizing an implantable stimulator and getting Health Canada and the FDA approvals for clinical trials. Previous research has tackled the challenge of translating brain signals and intent into commands to the intraspinal implant. However, the first generation of the intraspinal implants will require a patient to be able to control movement and walking. Future implants might include a connection to the brain.

To view the original scientific study click below

Functional organization of motor networks in the lumbosacral spinal cord of non-human primates.

Running Can Make Bone Marrow Younger

Running keeps bone marrow young! Researchers from Deakin University in Australia have found for every 5.5 miles a person runs every week, their bone marrow was one year younger.

The researchers studied the spinal marrow adipose tissue (MAT) of 101 women and men between the ages of 25 and 35. They were divided into four groups: runners averaging 12 to 25 miles per week, runners averaging at least 30 miles per week, cyclists who averaged at least 90 miles per week, and then sedentary people.

They discovered that both groups of runners had the lowest levels of MAT which is desirable. And despite being highly active, the cyclist actually had levels of MAT similar to those in the sedentary group.

In looking at the runners, the team discovered that those who ran 30 or more miles per week had bone marrow that was equivalent to eight years younger than those who were sedentary or didn’t exercise on a regular basis. Their findings suggest that the average person could gain younger bone marrow just through small amounts of running. The team believe that running even 12 miles per week will have a beneficial impact on MAT. And perhaps even less than that will have an impact.

Bone marrow produces blood cells and is a semisolid tissue that is found in the soft part of the bone. Humans are born with mostly red blood cell producing bone marrow. However, as we age this converts into a yellow fatty marrow, also known as marrow adipose tissue (MAT). This type of marrow can negatively affect blood and bone metabolism in areas such as the vertebrae, pelvis, hips, and thighs which can contribute to a variety of chronic conditions such as osteoporosis and diabetes. It also influences fat stores.

The new study suggests a correlation between certain type of exercise and MAT. However it isn’t as simple as simply burning calories. Cyclists in the study who rode more than 93 miles in a week’s time did not show any significant positive impact on MAT.

This suggests that MAT is affected by different rules to the fat stores under the skin. The researchers believe a person also needs the mechanical loading of the spine to impact MAT. Thus the mechanical loading of the spine with running is important. The team believes that it is the pounding of running that makes the difference between that type of exercise and cycling or swimming.

Although marrow tissue is a part of bone, the study’s findings are distinct from other studies showing that weight bearing exercise is good for the health of bone. Bone is structurally important for the attachment of muscles and support of the body. MAT on the other hand, has a variety of regulatory roles such as blood cell production, fat stores and bone tissue. Increases in MAT negatively impact both bone and red cell production.

How much running does a person need to keep their bone marrow young? While the team says that is an area that needs to be further studied, is is less than a person might think.

In addition to long distance runners, the team also studies those who jogged for 12 to 25 miles per week. Although they didn’t run as much as the long distance runners, they also showed a younger MAT however not as much as the longer runners.

While cycling did not show an impact on MAT and the team believes the same would apply to swimming, there are a variety of load bearing sports that will likely have an impact. This would include soccer, basketball, tennis and volleyball. And the data did show that high impact activities like jumping and sprinting also had a positive impact on MAT.

To view the original scientific study click below

Specific Modulation of Vertebral Marrow Adipose Tissue by Physical Activity.

Omega 3 Fatty Acids, Seafood and Healthy Aging!

A study which involved 2,622 adults participating in the U.S. Cardiovascular Health study from 1992 to 2015, has found that higher blood levels of omega 3 fatty acids found in seafood are linked to a higher likelihood of healthy aging in older adults. With populations around the world living longer, there is a significant and growing focus on aging in a healthy manner. This means a meaningful lifespan free of major chronic diseases and with good mental and physical function.

Prior studies have suggested that omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids that come from seafood and plants may produce beneficial effects on the body which could promote healthy aging. However, results have been inconsistent.

The recent research team set out to study the association between circulating blood levels of the fatty acids and healthy aging in older adults.

The study included 2,622 adults with the average age at the beginning of the study 74 years. 11% of the participants were from non white groups and 63% were women. Blood levels of the fatty acids were measured at baseline, 6 years and then 13 years. The fatty acids included EPA, DHA, DPA, and ALA. The primary dietary source of EPA, DHA and DPA came from seafood and the primary sources of ALA were mainly in plants such as nuts, leafy greens and seeds.

Based on the measurements, the participants were placed into five groups of circulating blood fatty acid levels from lowest to highest.

Through a review of diagnostic test and medical records, the team discovered that 89% of the participants experienced unhealthy aging throughout the study period. 11% experienced health aging which was defined as survival free of major chronic diseases and without physical or mental dysfunction.

After taking into account a range of economic, social and lifestyle factors, the team found that levels of the seafood derived EPA in the highest group was associated with a 24% lower risk of unhealthy aging compared to levels in the lowest group.

For levels of DPA, the top 3 groups were associated with an 18 to 21% reduction in the risk of unhealthy aging. However, the seafood derived DHA and the plant derived ALA were not associated with healthy aging. A possible explanation for this could be that fatty acids help to regulate heart rate, blood pressure and inflammation.

No firm conclusions can be made about cause and effect as this was an observational study, and they could not rule out the possibility that some of the risk could be due to other unmeasured factors.

The study had a follow up period of up to 22 years with results remaining largely unchanged after further analyses. As such, they team says that among older adults, higher levels of circulating omega 3 fatty acids from seafood were associated with a lower risk of unhealthy aging.

The findings certainly encourage the need for further studies into plausible biological interventions and mechanisms related to omega 3 fatty acids to support healthy aging and also support guidelines for increased dietary consumption of seafood among the older adult populations.

To view the original scientific study click below

Serial circulating omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and healthy ageing among older adults in the Cardiovascular Health Study: prospective cohort study.

Any Amount of Running Can Lower Risk of Early Death

A pool analysis of a variety of studies and other available evidence by a group of researchers, has found that any amount of running is linked to a lower risk of early death from any cause. The researchers believe that by more people taking up running which doesn’t have to be far or fast, there would likely be remarkable improvements in population longevity and health.

It isn’t exactly clear how running is lowering the risk of early death from any cause and particularly from cancer and cardiovascular disease. And it isn’t clear how much running a person would need to do to reap those benefits nor whether upping the duration, pace and frequency might be even more advantageous.

To try and discover how running may be linked to the lower risk of early death, the researchers systematically reviewed relevant conference presentations, published research, and doctoral dissertations and theses throughout a broad range of academic databases.

The team looked for studies in regards to the association between jogging/running and the risk of death from all causes. They found 14 suitable studies which involved 232,149 people whose health was tracked between 5.5 and 35 years. During the course, 29,951 study participants had died.

When all study data was pooled, any amount of running was found to be associated with a 27% lower risk of death from all causes for both men and women when compared to no running. And it was also found that the running was associated with a 23% lower risk of death from cancer and a 30% lower risk of death from cardiovascular disease.

Even small doses of running, for example once weekly or less which lasted less than 50 minutes each time and at a speed below 6 miles an hour, still was seen to be associated with significant longevity and health benefits.

Running for 25 minutes less than the recommended weekly duration of vigorous physical activity could possibly reduce the risk of early death. This shows that running could potentially be a good option for people whose main obstacle to doing enough exercise is due to lack of time.

The team could not find any association with further lowering the risk of early death from any cause due to upping the dose through pace, frequency or duration. And the team does caution that the small number of studies used and the methods varied considerably, might have influenced the results.

Although this is an observational study and can’t establish cause, the researchers suggest that any amount of running is beneficial than no running.

To view the original scientific study click below

Is running associated with a lower risk of all-cause, cardiovascular and cancer mortality, and is the more the better? A systematic review and meta-analysis.

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